{"id":3867,"date":"2018-08-14T12:40:27","date_gmt":"2018-08-14T19:40:27","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.wou.edu\/chemistry\/?page_id=3867"},"modified":"2018-09-18T08:18:30","modified_gmt":"2018-09-18T15:18:30","slug":"ch104-chapter-1-measurements-in-chemistry","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/wou.edu\/chemistry\/courses\/online-chemistry-textbooks\/3890-2\/ch104-chapter-1-measurements-in-chemistry\/","title":{"rendered":"CH104 – Chapter 1: Measurements in Chemistry"},"content":{"rendered":"

Chapter 1 – Measurements in Chemistry<\/strong><\/h2>\n

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This text is published under creative commons licensing, for referencing and adaptation, please click<\/span> here. <\/em><\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Sections:<\/span><\/strong><\/h2>\n

Section 1: Chemistry and Matter<\/strong><\/span><\/a><\/h3>\n

What is Chemistry?<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Physical and Chemical Properties<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Elements and Compounds<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Mixtures<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

States of Matter<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Section 2: How Scientists Study Chemistry<\/a> <\/strong><\/h3>\n

The Scientific Method<\/a> <\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n

Section 3: Scientific Notation<\/a> <\/strong><\/h3>\n

Video Tutorial<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Practice Problems <\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Section 4: Units of Measurement <\/strong><\/a><\/h3>\n

International System of Units and the Metric System<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Derived SI Units<\/a> <\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n

<\/span>Section 5: Making Measurements in the Lab<\/a> <\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\n

Precision vs. Accuracy<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Significant Figures<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Exact Numbers<\/a> <\/span> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Rules of Rounding<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Video Tutorial <\/a><\/span> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Calculations with Significant Figures<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Conversions and the Importance of Units<\/a> <\/strong><\/span>
\n <\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Conversion Factors<\/strong><\/a><\/span><\/h4>\n

Section 6:<\/strong> <\/span>Focus on the Environment – Plastics and Ocean Pollution<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/a><\/h3>\n

Section 7:<\/strong> Chapter Summary<\/strong><\/span><\/a><\/h3>\n

Section 8: Chapter Homework<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\n

Section 9: References<\/span><\/strong><\/a><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

\n

Section 1: Chemistry and Matter<\/strong><\/h3>\n

What is Chemistry?<\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Everything around us is made up of chemicals. From the color that makes a rose so red to the gasoline that fills our cars and the silicon chips that power our computers and cell phones\u2026Chemistry is everywhere! Understanding how chemical molecules form and interact to create complex structures enables us to harness the power of chemistry and use it, just like a toolbox, to create many of the modern advances that we see today. This includes advances in medicine, communication, transportation, building infrastructure, food science and agriculture, and nearly every other technical field that you can imagine.<\/span><\/p>\n

Chemistry is one branch of science. Science is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by observing, testing, and then generating models that explain our observations. is the process by which we learn about the natural universe by observing, testing, and then generating models that explain our observations. Because the physical universe is so vast, there are many different branches of science (Figure 1.1). Thus, chemistry is the study of matter, biology is the study of living things, and geology is the study of rocks and the earth. Mathematics is the language of science, and we will use it to communicate some of the ideas of chemistry.<\/span><\/p>\n

Although we divide science into different fields, there is much overlap among them. For example, some biologists and chemists work in both fields so much that their work is called biochemistry. Similarly, geology and chemistry overlap in the field called geochemistry. Figure 1.1 shows how many of the individual fields of science are related.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Figure<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.1: The Relationships Between Some of the Major Branches of Science.<\/strong> <\/span>Chemistry lies more or less in the middle, which emphasizes its importance to many branches of science.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Physical vs. Chemical Properties<\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Part of understanding matter is being able to describe it. One way chemists describe matter is to assign different kinds of properties to different categories. The properties that chemists use to describe matter fall into two general categories. Physical properties are characteristics that describes matter, such as boiling point, melting point and color. Physical Changes, such as melting a solid into a liquid, do not alter the chemical structure of that matter. Chemical properties are characteristics that describe how the chemical structure of matter changes during a chemical reaction. An example of a chemical property is flammability\u2014a materials ability to burn\u2014because burning (also known as combustion) changes the chemical composition of a material.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Elements and Compounds<\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Any sample of matter that has the same physical and chemical properties throughout the sample is called a substance. There are two types of substances. A substance that cannot be broken down into chemically simpler components is an element. Aluminum, which is used in soda cans, is an element. A substance that can be broken down into chemically simpler components (because it has more than one element) is a compound. Water is a compound composed of the elements hydrogen and oxygen. Today, there are about 118 elements in the known universe which are organized on a fundamental chart called the Periodic Table of Elements (Fig. 1.2). In contrast, scientists have identified tens of millions of different compounds to date.<\/span><\/p>\n

The smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element is called an atom. Atoms are extremely tiny; to make a line 1 inch long, you would need 217 million iron atoms! Similarly, the smallest part of a compound that maintains the identity of that compound is called a molecule. Molecules are composed of atoms that are attached together and behave as a unit (Fig. 1.2). Scientists usually work with millions of atoms and molecules at a time. When a scientist is working<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Figre<\/a><\/div>\n
\"Figure<\/a><\/div>\n
<\/div>\n

Figure 1.2: (Upper Panel)<\/em> The Periodic Table of the Elements is an organized chart that contains all of the known chemical elements. (Lower Panel<\/em>) To the left of the arrow is shown one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen.<\/strong> Each of these represent single elements. When they are combined on the righthand side, they form a single molecule of water (H2<\/sub>O). Note that water is defined as a compound, because each single molecule is made up of more than one type of element, in this case, one atom of oxygen with two atoms of hydrogen.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

with large numbers of atoms or molecules at a time, the scientist is studying the macroscopic view of the universe. However, scientists can also describe chemical events on the level of individual atoms or molecules, which is referred to as the microscopic viewpoint. We will see examples of both macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints throughout this book (Figure 1.3).<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Figure<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.3: How many molecules are needed for a period in a sentence?<\/strong> Although we do not notice it from a macroscopic perspective, matter is composed of microscopic particles so tiny that billions of them are needed to make a speck that we can see with the naked eye. The X25 and X400,000,000 indicate the number of times the image is magnified.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

Mixtures<\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

A material composed of two or more substances is a mixture. In a mixture, the individual substances maintain their chemical identities. Many mixtures are obvious combinations of two or more substances, such as a mixture of sand and water. Such mixtures are called heterogeneous mixtures. In some mixtures, the components are so intimately combined that they act like a single substance even though they are not. Mixtures with a consistent composition throughout are called homogeneous mixtures Homogeneous mixtures that are mixed so thoroughly that neither component can be observed independently of the other are called solutions. Sugar dissolved in water is an example of a solution. A metal alloy, such as steel, is an example of a solid solution. Air, a mixture of mainly nitrogen and oxygen, is a gaseous solution.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Homogeneous<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.4: Heterogeneous vs. Homogeneous Mixtures. <\/strong> A mixture contains more than one substance. In the upper panel you see an example of a heterogeneous mixture of oil and water. The mixture is heterogeneous because you can visibly see two different components in the mixture. In the lower panel, you see an example of a homogeneous mixture, coffee. It is homogeneous because you cannot distinguish the many different components that make up a cup of coffee (water; caffeine; coffee alkaloids and tannins). It looks the same throughout. If the mixture is homogeneous and is also see through or clear, it is called a solution. In our example, the coffee is a solution; however, a concentrated espresso may be very opaque and would only be homogeneous mixture, not a solution.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

States of Matter<\/strong><\/span><\/h4>\n

Another way to classify matter is to describe it as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, which was done in the examples of solutions, above. These three descriptions, each implying that the matter has certain physical properties, represent the three phases of matter. A solid has a definite shape and a definite volume. Liquids have a definite volume but not a definite shape; they take the shape of their containers. Gases have neither a definite shape nor a definite volume, and they expand to fill their containers. We encounter matter in each phase every day. In fact, we regularly encounter water in all three phases: ice (solid), water (liquid), and steam (gas).<\/span><\/p>\n

We know from our experience with water that substances can change from one phase to another if the conditions are right. Typically, varying the temperature of a substance (and, less commonly, the pressure exerted on it) can cause a phase change or a physical process in which a substance goes from one phase to another (Figure 1.5). Phase changes have particular names depending on what phases are involved, as summarized in Table 1.1.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"phase_changes\"<\/a><\/p>\n

<\/span><\/p>\n

\"boiling<\/a><\/p>\n

\"Phase<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.5. Analyzing Phase Changes. <\/strong> (Upper panel<\/em>) A photo of boiling water demonstrates the phase change of water from the liquid to the gaseous phase. Note that phase changes are a physical property of a molecule. The water is still chemically the same (H2<\/sub>O) in the solid, liquid, or gaseous state. (Lower panel<\/em>) Change in temperature can cause phase changes . Above is the temperature scale for the phase changes of water. If you add heat to solid ice, water will melt at 0o<\/sup>C and boil at 100o<\/sup>C. If you remove heat from gaseous water, it will condense into the liquid state at 100o<\/sup>C and freeze at 0o<\/sup>C.<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

In summary, Figure 1.6 \u201cThe Classification of Matter\u201d illustrates the relationships between the different ways matter can be classified.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Figure<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.6 The Classification of Matter. <\/strong>Matter can be classified in a variety of ways depending on its properties<\/span><\/p>\n

(Back to the Top)<\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

\n

Section 2: How Scientists Study Chemistry<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\n

The Scientific Method<\/span><\/strong><\/h4>\n

How do scientists work? Generally, they follow a process called the scientific method. The scientific method is an organized procedure for learning answers to questions. To find the answer to a question (for example, \u201cWhy do birds fly toward Earth\u2019s equator during the cold months?\u201d), a scientist goes through the following steps, which are also illustrated in Figure 1.7.<\/span><\/p>\n

\"Figure<\/a><\/p>\n

Figure 1.7 The General Steps of the Scientific Method.<\/strong> The steps may not be as clear-cut in real life as described here, but most scientific work follows this general outline.<\/p>\n

\n

Propose a hypothesis.<\/strong> A scientist generates a testable idea, or hypothesis, to try to answer a question or explain how the natural universe works. Some people use the word theory in place of hypothesis, but the word hypothesis is the proper word in science. For scientific applications, the word theory is a general statement that describes a large set of observations and data. A theory represents the highest level of scientific understanding, and is built from a wide array of factual knowledge or data.<\/p>\n

Test the hypothesis.<\/strong> A scientist evaluates the hypothesis by devising and carrying out experiments to test it. If the hypothesis passes the test, it may be a proper answer to the question. If the hypothesis does not pass the test, it may not be a good answer.<\/p>\n

Refine the hypothesis if necessary.<\/strong> Depending on the results of experiments, a scientist may want to modify the hypothesis and then test it again. Sometimes the results show the original hypothesis to be completely wrong, in which case a scientist will have to devise a new hypothesis.<\/p>\n

Not all scientific investigations are simple enough to be separated into these three discrete steps. But these steps represent the general method by which scientists learn about our natural universe.<\/p>\n

\"\"<\/a><\/p>\n

(Back to the Top)<\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

\n

Section 3: Scientific Notation<\/strong><\/h3>\n

The study of chemistry can involve numbers that are very large. It can also involve numbers that are very small. Writing out such numbers and using them in their long form is problematic, because we would spend far too much time writing zeroes, and we would probably make a lot of mistakes! There is a solution to this problem. It is called scientific notation. <\/span><\/p>\n

Scientific notation allows us to express very large and very small numbers using powers of 10.<\/span><\/p>\n

Recall that:<\/span><\/p>\n

100<\/sup> = 1 101<\/sup> = 10 102<\/sup> = 100<\/span><\/h3>\n

103<\/sup> = 1000 104<\/sup> = 10000 105<\/sup> = 100000<\/span><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

As you can see, the power to which 10 is raised is equal to the number of zeroes that follow the 1. This will be helpful for determining which exponent to use when we express numbers using scientific notation.<\/span>
\n <\/span><\/p>\n

Let us take a very large number:<\/span><\/p>\n

579, 000, 000, 000<\/span><\/h3>\n

and express it using scientific notation.<\/span>
\n <\/span><\/p>\n

First, we find the coefficient, which is a number between 1 and 10 that will be multiplied by 10 raised to some power.<\/span><\/p>\n

Our coefficient is: 5.79<\/span><\/h3>\n

This number will be multiplied by 10 that is raised to some power. Now let us figure out what power that is.<\/span>
\n <\/span><\/p>\n

We can do this by counting the number of positions that stand between the end of the original number and the new position of the decimal point in our coefficient.<\/span><\/p>\n

5 . 7 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0<\/span> <\/span><\/h3>\n

\u2191 \u2191<\/span><\/h3>\n

How many positions are there?<\/h3>\n

We can see that there are 11 positions between our decimal and the end of the original number. This means that our coefficient, 5.79, will be multiplied by 10 raised to the 11th power.<\/p>\n

Our number expressed in scientific notation is:<\/p>\n

5.79 x 1011<\/sup><\/span><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

But what about very small numbers?<\/span>
\n <\/span><\/p>\n

You may recall that:<\/span><\/p>\n

10-1<\/sup> = 0.1 10-2<\/sup> = 0.01 10-3<\/sup> = 0.001<\/span><\/h3>\n

10-4<\/sup> = 0.0001 10-5<\/sup> = 0.00001<\/span><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

The number of spaces to the right of the decimal point for our 1 is equal to the number in the exponent that is behind the negative sign. This is useful to keep in mind when we express very small numbers in scientific notation.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Here is a very small number:<\/span>
\n <\/span><\/p>\n

0.0000642<\/span><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

Let us express this number using scientific notation.<\/span><\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Our coefficient will be 6.42<\/span><\/h3>\n

This number will be multiplied by 10 raised to some power, which will be negative. Let us figure out the correct power. <\/span>We can figure this out by counting how many positions stand between the decimal point in our coefficient and the decimal point in our original number.<\/span><\/p>\n

0 . 0 0 0 0 6 4 2<\/span>
\n \u2191 \u2191<\/span><\/h3>\n

How many positions?<\/h3>\n

There are 5 positions between our new decimal point and the decimal point in the original number, so our coefficient will be multiplied by 10 raised to the negative 5th power.<\/span><\/p>\n

Our number written in scientific notation is:<\/span><\/p>\n

6.42 x 10-5<\/sup><\/span><\/h3>\n

 <\/p>\n

You can use these methods to express any large or small number using scientific notation.<\/p>\n

VIDEO TUTORIAL FOR SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:<\/strong><\/h4>\n